Written by Nandhu
Intern- Lex Lumen Research Journal,
December 2025
INTRODUCTION
Climate change has moved from being a distant global concern to an immediate force reshaping India’s demographic reality. Across the country, extreme temperatures, erratic rainfall, rising seas, and intensified disasters are pushing communities into distress migration as a last resort for survival. From arid stretches of Rajasthan to the cyclone-battered coasts of Bengal, families are increasingly forced to choose between deteriorating local conditions and uncertain futures elsewhere (IPCC, 2022). In a country of over 1.4 billion people many depend on agriculture and fragile ecosystems the scale of this climate-driven mobility represents a significant socio-economic challenge (NITI Aayog, 2021).
Understanding these migration flows is vital not merely for academic inquiry but for designing policies that safeguard dignity, livelihoods, and long-term resilience. As highlighted by the Internal Displacement Monitoring Centre, India consistently remains among the countries with the highest levels of climate-related internal displacement (IDMC, 2021). This underscores the urgency for systematic analysis and responsive governance.
THE SCALE OF CLIMATE MIGRATION
Climate-induced migration in India is substantial but often invisible in formal statistics, as most affected individuals migrate internally and receive no legal recognition. Between 2011 and 2021, an estimated 5–7 million people were displaced each year by climate-related hazards (IDMC, 2020). These figures primarily reflect sudden disasters such as floods and cyclones, which alone displaced nearly 4 million people in 2020 (MHA, 2020). However, slower processes such as declining groundwater, rising temperatures, and soil degradation impact far more people over time but remain poorly captured (World Bank, 2021).
Studies from the World Bank show that India is poised to become one of the global hotspots of internal climate migration by mid-century if current trends continue (World Bank, 2018). These numbers reveal an unfolding crisis that requires integrated monitoring and policy responses.
PRIMARY DRIVERS OF CLIMATE MIGRATION
Water Scarcity and Drought
Recurrent droughts have become a defining feature of many Indian states, particularly Maharashtra, Karnataka, Rajasthan, and Madhya Pradesh. Climate variability has sharply reduced agricultural viability in these regions, forcing farmers into distress migration during prolonged dry periods (Swain & Jena, 2020). In places like Marathwada, seasonal migration has become a normalized strategy, with families spending most months in cities working in construction and informal labour (TERI, 2020). This reflects the deepening connection between water insecurity and forced mobility.
Coastal Flooding and Sea-Level Rise
India’s vast coastline is extremely vulnerable to sea-level rise, cyclones, tidal surges, and saline intrusion. In the Sundarbans, increasing salinity and recurring storms have severely reduced agricultural productivity, prompting large-scale out-migration over the last decade (Banerjee et al., 2022). Coastal erosion up to 2–3 meters per year in some areas has led to relocation in states like Kerala, Odisha, and Tamil Nadu (Roy & Sharma, 2021). Unlike drought-related migration, displacement caused by sea-level rise is often permanent because lost land cannot be recovered.
Himalayan Glacier Melt and Mountain Hazards
Climate-induced glacier retreat and unstable weather patterns in the Himalayas have led to an increase in flash floods, landslides, and glacial lake outburst floods (GLOFs). These events have repeatedly devastated settlements in Uttarakhand and Himachal Pradesh, pushing residents to migrate downward to safer areas (Shukla et al., 2020). This pattern highlights how ecological fragility in mountain regions is translating into irreversible displacement.
Agricultural Decline and Food Insecurity
Agriculture supports nearly half of India’s workforce but remains vulnerable to climate-induced stressors like irregular monsoons, pest outbreaks, and heat extremes (Ravindranath & Rao, 2020). As incomes fall and crop failures rise, many rural households migrate to cities, not only farmers but also agricultural labourers and ancillary workers. This migration undermines rural economies while deepening urban pressures.
SOCIO-ECONOMIC IMPACTS: WHO BEARS THE BURDEN?
Gendered Impacts
Climate migration has strong gendered dimensions. When men migrate, women are left to manage households, farms, and caregiving responsibilities with limited resources and decision-making power (UNDP, 2021). Women who migrate face risks of labour exploitation, inadequate healthcare, and lack of social networks. Female-headed households created by male migration often fall deeper into poverty and social vulnerability (Agarwal & Narain, 2019).
Caste and Class Inequalities
Marginalized groups particularly Dalits and Adivasis bear disproportionate climate burdens. Because they often reside on fragile lands and work in low-paid occupations, they have fewer assets to cope with environmental shocks (CSE, 2020). Upon migration, caste-based barriers continue to restrict housing and employment opportunities, confining them to precarious informal settlements (Mukherjee & Chakraborty, 2021).
Children and Education
Displacement disrupts children’s education as families move between villages and cities. Seasonal migration leads to irregular school attendance, learning gaps, and heightened dropout rates (World Bank, 2021). Many children are compelled to work to support household income, perpetuating intergenerational poverty.
Elderly and Disabled Individuals
Older adults and persons with disabilities are among the most vulnerable. Those left behind face reduced community support, while those who migrate encounter severe physical and social barriers in unfamiliar urban environments (IOM, 2021).
MIGRATION PATTERNS AND DESTINATIONS
Climate migrants follow multiple mobility routes. Most movement occurs within nearby districts, allowing families to maintain ties and return during agricultural seasons (IDMC, 2021). Longer-distance migration streams are common from drought-prone states like Bihar, Jharkhand, and Odisha toward metropolitan cities such as Delhi, Mumbai, Surat, and Bengaluru (Mukherjee & Chakraborty, 2021). Coastal migrants increasingly move to state capitals or nearby urban centres.
Urban destinations, however, are themselves climate-vulnerable. Cities face heat islands, water shortages, and flooding while struggling to absorb new populations (TERI, 2020). As a result, migrants frequently encounter insecure housing and limited access to basic services.
ECONOMIC IMPLICATIONS
Out-migration affects both source and destination regions. Rural areas lose productive labour, slowing local development. Yet remittances serve as vital income for households, supporting consumption and limited investments in agriculture and education (World Bank, 2018).
Destination cities benefit from migrant labour, especially in construction, domestic work, and manufacturing (Roy & Sharma, 2021). However, rapid population growth strains urban infrastructure, contributes to informal settlements, and increases municipal service burdens (CSE, 2020). At the national scale, unmanaged migration leads to economic inefficiencies and long-term social protection gaps (NITI Aayog, 2021).
POLICY RESPONSES AND EXISTING GAPS
India does not yet have a dedicated policy framework addressing climate-induced migration. The Disaster Management Act (2005) focuses on immediate relief but does not cover slow-onset climate impacts or planned relocation (MHA, 2020). Similarly, the National Action Plan on Climate Change (NAPCC) mentions migration but lacks concrete mechanisms (Government of India, 2008).
Programmes like MGNREGA provide temporary income security and may reduce distress migration, but coverage remains inconsistent (MoRD, 2022). Urban planning rarely accounts for migrant populations, leading to repeated evictions and exclusion from essential services (CSE, 2020). These gaps highlight the need for integrated climate, labour, and urban policies.
LOOKING FORWARD: TOWARD DIGNIFIED AND EQUITABLE MIGRATION
A forward-looking approach must view migration as a legitimate adaptation strategy rather than a failure to cope. Strengthening climate resilience in vulnerable regions through water conservation, climate-smart agriculture, diversified livelihoods, and disaster-resistant infrastructure can reduce forced migration (IPCC, 2022).
At the same time, it is essential to facilitate safe and dignified mobility through portable welfare benefits, skill development, migrant housing schemes, and inclusive labour protections (IOM, 2021). Urban planning must anticipate future migrant inflows and ensure affordable housing, public services, and climate-resilient infrastructure.
Critically, India needs comprehensive data systems to monitor climate migration patterns. Incorporating migration metrics into national surveys, censuses, and disaster protocols would enable evidence-based policymaking (IDMC, 2020). Ultimately, a dedicated national policy on climate migration is necessary to integrate environmental, socio-economic, and developmental dimensions.
CONCLUSION
Climate-induced migration in India is already a lived reality for millions. It reflects a complex interplay between environmental stress, socio-economic vulnerability, and structural inequalities. Whether India can manage this phenomenon with dignity and justice will significantly shape its development trajectory in the climate-changed century ahead. Behind every statistic lies a disrupted family, a lost livelihood, and a community forced into difficult decisions. Their experiences call for empathetic policymaking and a commitment to resilience, equity, and human rights (UNDP, 2021).
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